It was in the 13th century, near the end of the Song Dynasty (960-1279), that a form of opera called "zaju " ("multi-act" play) came into being.

Zaju typically featured three major roles: a woman (dan); an elderly, usually venerable man (mo); and a young man (sheng). "Comedians" (chou) also played a role, providing ironic commentary on the events which took place on stage.

The art form originated in regions south of the Yangtze River, where the Song rulers had their capital, and then spread gradually to the north during the Jin Dynasty (1115-1234).

According to historians, Chinese traditional opera reached its climax during the Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368).

Zaju Lures Princes & Paupers

Zaju, in its more mature form, became a landmark in the development of traditional drama. It was semi-operatic, and incorporated the exciting plots, elaborate costumes, musical accompaniment, action, and dance that would eventually become standard components of what is now commonly called Chinese opera.

While there are many reasons zaju became popular, perhaps the opera form's most important characteristic was that the pieces were written using the vernacular language, rather than the stuffier classical style. This made the performances accessible to a wide range of people, including the illiterate.

Also giving zaju mass appeal was its tendency to take social life as its main subject matter.

Guan Hanqing (1220-1306), one of the great writers of Chinese traditional opera, was also one of the most influential figures during his time.

Because there are few historical records available to shed light on Guan's life, all that can be said for certain is that he once served as a doctor in an imperial clinic.

More important than such details, however, are the works he left behind and the legacy that has followed.

Guan managed to write 67 plays during his long life, and 18 of them have remained a part of the contemporary opera canon. "Snow in Midsummer" (also known as "The Grievance of Dou'e"), is one of Guan's masterpieces that have maintained its popularity throughout the years.

The opera tells the story of a young woman named Dou'e who is wrongly accused of murder. Before she is executed, she vows that it will snow in June if she is innocent. After her death, the vow comes true and Dou'e's accusers make an attempt to address their wrong.

The play praises justice and condemns evil, and serves as an indirect commentary on the incapability of the Yuan imperial court.

When the play was first staged, a high-ranking imperial official ordered Guan to revise the play. Guan and the performers refused and performed the play again in an act of defiance. The writer and the leading actress were imprisoned and were not released until the official was murdered.

Considered to be one of 10 classic tragedies in Chinese traditional opera, the play has been translated into a number of European languages, including English, and continues to be performed on stages around the globe.

Another Yuan Dynasty playwright of some note, Wang Shifu (late 13th century), became well known for his work "The Romance of the Western Chamber," one of Chinese opera's favorite comedies.

Adapted from a legend from Tang Dynasty (618-907), the play is a love story that follows the trials and tribulations of a poor scholar and his sweetheart, a beautiful lady of noble birth. The piece is entertaining even as it exposes the backwardness of a traditional status-conscious society that will not allow marriage between rich and poor.

Evolution of New Forms

While the relatively scholarly crowds in the north watched zaju, a folk tradition of opera known as "marvelous tales" (chuanqi) flourished in the south, particularly in Zhejiang and Jiangsu provinces.

The chuanqi tradition produced one of the 10 classic tragedies in China - Gao Ming's (1301-1370) "The Lute Song (Pipa Ji)," which portrays the irreconcilable tension between filial piety and loyalty to the throne, two of the most important virtues in Confucian social thought.

In the later years of the Yuan Dynasty, zaju was replaced by nanxi, a kind of opera also born on southern soil. By the middle of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), a combination of Yuan zaju and nanxi, known as poetic drama, appeared and Chinese opera stepped into one of its many golden ages.

In the mid-14th century, all dramas critical of emperors, princes or sages were prohibited, while those about "righteous men and chaste women, filial sons and obedient grandsons, and those who encourage the people to do good" were encouraged.

The Chinese Shakespeare

Tang Xianzu (1550-1616), who actually lived around the same time as seminal English playwright Shakespeare, created a volume of work which matched that of his British colleague.

Perhaps his most famous masterpiece is "The Peony Pavilion," a fanciful, love-conquers-all story that has taken a permanent place in the Chinese cultural landscape.

"Peony Pavilion" centers around the story of two lovers - a teenage girl named Du Liniang and a young scholar, Liu Mengmei. The two first meet in a mutual dream.

Unable to find her dream lover, Du pines away and eventually dies. Three years later, Liu happens to pass Du's resting place on his way to participate in the imperial examinations and is struck by the discovery of Du's portrait adorning the tomb.

Unlike "Romeo and Juliet," Tang's tale has a happy ending.

Eventually, the couple is united, Liu being able to resurrect Du through the power of his love.

Far beyond the romantic story of a teenage ghost and her dream lover, the play is an epic spectacle that unrolls like a giant Chinese scroll painting, depicting the society of the Ming Dynasty in detail through a cast of 160 characters, among them bandits, Taoist nuns, comic servants, barbarian invaders, scholars and prostitutes.

"The Peony Pavilion" is perhaps most remarkable for its heroine, Du Liniang, who stands as one of the first female characters in Chinese traditional opera brave to fight for freedom in a feudal society.

Controversy attached itself to the work almost before the ink dried. "The Peony Pavilion" was censored as early as the 17th century.

With the arrival of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), Chinese traditional opera developed in even more directions.

Kong Shangren (1648-1718), a descendant of Confucius, was one of the biggest names in the world of opera during the Qing Dynasty.

Born in Qufu, Shandong Province, Kong had a distinguished career as a scholar-official. His fame rested largely on "The Peach-blossom Fan," a historical chuanqi drama which he based on events that occurred around the time of the collapse of the Ming Dynasty.

Kong's work illustrates the complexity that arose as a result of changes in the social ties between the literate and actors, courtesans and musicians through the 17th century, not only within its text but in the circumstances of its composition.

When the drama appeared in print in Beijing, it had a great impact on the society. It was read by princes and merchants alike. Many had copies of the drama made, resulting in a huge increase in the price of paper.

The fluent verses and polished dialogue lend the characters an unusual life. Unlike most Chinese traditional operas, the play has no happy ending, and it therefore occupies a unique place in the history of Chinese opera.

Peking Opera Evolves

In the late 18th century, a new form of opera began to take shape in the Qing Dynasty capital of Beijing.

In 1790, theater groups from all over China arrived in Beijing to perform for the Qing Emperor Qianlong's birthday.

Four theater companies from Anhui Province managed to electrify capital audiences with their fresh theatrical and musical styles and eventually replacing the Kunqu Opera style that had dominated the city in the previous 200 years.

Characteristics from other regional forms of opera, such as Hebei, Hunan and Shaanxi, were incorporated into the Anhui style.

This form of opera later became known as Peking Opera. Because of its long history, Peking Opera encompasses a wide variety of drama and a wide variety of styles of acting.

By the end of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), there were several hundred local opera traditions, differing in terms of dialect, stage settings, acting techniques and music. Each variety took its name from the place where it originated.

By the 20th century, traditional Chinese opera was so closely associated with Confucianism, and Confucianism with backwardness, that reform-minded intellectuals argued for the abandonment or modernization of the ancient art form.

They orchestrated the creation of "new dramas" with anti-feudal and anti-imperialist themes, featuring actors in contemporary costumes.

Modern Chinese Drama, or Huaju (spoken play), started to develop in the early part of this century in Shanghai.

Since then, a number of Chinese playwrights have created works that realistically reflect the changes in the lives of Chinese people. The most memorable include "Teahouse," "The Peking Man," "The Thunderstorm," "Family" and "The Prairie."

(China Daily 11/06/2000)