The Mongol empire which spanned from Eastern Europe through Asia during the 13th and 14th centuries is credited with being one of the largest in geographical terms ever.

The name of its greatest leader, Genghis Khan (1127-67) was known as the "Universal Ruler." Though well documented, little was left as records to this extraordinary time in China's history, and much of this period remains unknown.

Historians on the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368), who have enjoyed attention in the Western academic world, were near silent compared with their colleagues studying the Tang (AD 618-907) or Qing (1644-1911) dynasties in China, says Wang Dafang, a historian working for the cultural heritage administration of North China's Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region.

"The silence prevails mainly because we lack historical files, relics and international exchanges," he adds.

But the situation is changing. This year, two major exhibitions of the Yuan Dynasty have been held at major art venues in Beijing -- the "Genghis Khan" exhibition at the Millennium Art Museum of the China Millennium Monument which ended last month, and "The Legacy Treasure of a Great Dynasty" an ongoing exhibition at the Arthur M. Sackler Museum of Peking University.

The latter show runs until November 25, and began last week with an international symposium attended by more than 100 archaeologists, art historians, curators and historians from China, Australia, Britain, Japan, Singapore, South Korea and the United States. Most of them work at important institutions including the Washington-based Smithsonian Institution and the Taipei Palace Museum.

Hosted by the Hohhot-based Mongol-Yuan Cultural Foundation, the exhibition and the symposium focused on three topics: the Mongolian writings, weaponry and handicrafts.

The exhibition features more than 30 relics, including gold tablets, jade cups and porcelain bearing Jurchen, Persian, Uygur, Khitan, Han Chinese and Phagspa scripts used by the ancient Mongolians from the 12th century.

Historians agreed that the most influential ancient writing by the people of that time -- famed for their horseback war fare -- was the Phagspa script, created by a Tibetan lama named Phagspa, who attended the order of Kublai Khan (1215-94).

Phagspa was an important political activist, grand lama and scholar, and honored by Kublai Khan as the Imperial Tutor. In 1269, Kublai Khan decreed to unify the Mongolian language into the "Phagspa language" which the monk had created.

Kublai Khan granted him a jade seal and gave him authority over Buddhist affairs in the empire as well as the administration over the Tibetan region.

The Phagspa script, historians say, is a combination of the Tibetan and Sanskrit writings. It could be used to write in both the Mongolian and the Han Chinese languages, and like the Han script it appeared in block characters lined vertically.

An earlier attempt to create Mongolian writings was made at the order of Genghis Khan, who asked Mongolian scholar Tatatunnga to write the Mongolian language with Uygur writings and tried to spread the Uygur-Mongolian script.

Inside a jade wine vessel on display, visitors can see an inscription in the short-lived language, "Temujin" -- Genghis Khan's name.

The second part of the exhibition includes about 30 weapons used more than 700 years ago by the Mongolian army, which defeated the ancient Han, Jurchen, Dangxiang, Persian, Russian and Turkish troops.

"The cavalry was most important in the Mongolian army. Both the Mongolian cavalry and infantry won victories thanks to their strong bows and heavy, sharp arrows. The Mongols also used swords, spears and battle-axes," says Shao Man, the exhibition curator. "During the Yuan Dynasty a 'modern' copper gun was invented and widely used. Visitors can see it here," he adds.

The exhibition hall also houses displays of the Yuan Dynasty handicrafts, and visitors may be surprised to see many luxurious items such as silk and felt carpets, gold, silver and jade artifacts which boast an Islamic style.

"Many royal workshops during that time employed mainly Muslim craftsmen. The exquisite Islamic style was favored by the royal family," Shao explains.

"What you see on display here shows a powerful dynasty with a great tolerance for a variety of cultures."

(China Daily September 7, 2004)